Clinical and Laboratory Predictors of Disease Severity in Hospitalized Children with COVID-19: A Study from the Early Pandemic Period
Predictores clínicos y de laboratorio de la gravedad de la enfermedad en niños hospitalizados con COVID-19: un estudio del periodo inicial de la pandemia
Aysun Boga, Elif Betül Keskin Çetinkaya, Ezgi Nafile Sayman, Sümeyra Gedik Calıskan, Sirin Guven
Abstract
Introduction: Although COVID-19 generally follows a mild course in children, a subset required hospitalization during the early pandemic period. Data from the pre-vaccination phase remain important for understanding risk factors associated with severe disease, particularly in upper-middle-income healthcare settings. The aim of this manuscript is to evaluate the clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of hospitalized children with COVID-19 and to compare findings according to disease severity.
Material and methods: This retrospective study included 97 children hospitalized with confirmed COVID-19 between October and December 2020 at a tertiary center in Türkiye. Patients were classified as non-severe or severe. Demographic, clinical, laboratory, radiological, and outcome data were compared between groups.
Results: Of 97 patients, 75 (77.3%) were non-severe and 22 (22.7%) were severe. Severe patients were significantly older (median age: 136.5 months vs. 18 months, p = 0.036) and more frequently had ≥2 infected household contacts (p=0.034). Cough, dyspnea, and comorbidities were more common in severe cases. Severe disease was associated with lymphopenia, higher neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, elevated CRP and D-dimer levels, increased troponin, and greater CT severity (all p<0.05).
Conclusions: During the early pandemic period, older age, multiple household contacts, comorbidities, elevated inflammatory and cardiac biomarkers, and more extensive radiological involvement were associated with severe disease among hospitalized children. In exploratory multivariable analyses, D-dimer remained significantly associated with disease severity. These findings are specific to the early pandemic period before the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants and pediatric vaccination and require validation in contemporary pediatric cohorts.
Keywords
Resumen
Introducción: Si bien la COVID-19 generalmente tiene un curso leve en niños, un subgrupo requirió hospitalización durante la fase inicial de la pandemia. Los datos de la fase previa a la vacunación siguen siendo importantes para comprender los factores de riesgo asociados con la enfermedad grave, particularmente en entornos de atención médica de ingresos medios-altos. El objetivo de este manuscrito es evaluar las características clínicas, de laboratorio y radiológicas de niños hospitalizados con COVID-19 y comparar los hallazgos según la gravedad de la enfermedad.
Material y métodos: Este estudio retrospectivo incluyó a 97 niños hospitalizados con COVID-19 confirmado entre octubre y diciembre de 2020 en un centro de atención terciaria en Turquía. Los pacientes se clasificaron como leves o graves. Se compararon los datos demográficos, clínicos, de laboratorio, radiológicos y de resultados entre los grupos.
Resultados: De los 97 pacientes, 75 (77,3 %) presentaron un cuadro leve y 22 (22,7 %) un cuadro grave. Los pacientes con enfermedad grave eran significativamente mayores (mediana de edad: 136,5 meses frente a 18 meses, p = 0,036) y presentaban con mayor frecuencia ≥2 contactos domésticos infectados (p = 0,034). La tos, la disnea y las comorbilidades fueron más frecuentes en los casos graves. La enfermedad grave se asoció con linfopenia, mayor índice neutrófilos/linfocitos, niveles elevados de PCR y dímero D, aumento de troponina y mayor gravedad en la tomografía computarizada (p < 0,05 en todos los casos).
Conclusiones: Durante el inicio de la pandemia, la edad avanzada, los múltiples contactos domésticos, las comorbilidades, los biomarcadores inflamatorios y cardíacos elevados y una mayor afectación radiológica se asociaron con la enfermedad grave en niños hospitalizados. En los análisis multivariables exploratorios, el dímero D se mantuvo significativamente asociado con la gravedad de la enfermedad. Estos hallazgos son específicos del inicio de la pandemia, antes de la aparición de las variantes del SARS-CoV-2 y la vacunación pediátrica, y requieren validación en cohortes pediátricas contemporáneas.
Palabras clave
References
1. Habas K, Nganwuchu C, Shahzad F, Gopalan R, Haque M, Rahman S, et al. Resolution of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2020;18(12):1201-11. doi: 10.1080/14787210.2020.1797487.
2. Ludvigsson JF. Systematic review of COVID-19 in children shows milder cases and a better prognosis than adults. Acta Paediatr. 2020;109(6):1088-95. doi: 10.1111/apa.15270.
3. Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, Kaforou M, Jones CE, Shah P, et al. Clinical Characteristics of 58 Children With a Pediatric Inflammatory Multisystem Syndrome Temporally Associated With SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020;324(3):259-69. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.10369.
4. Abdel-Mannan O, Eyre M, Löbel U, Bamford A, Eltze C, Hameed B, et al. Neurologic and Radiographic Findings Associated With COVID-19 Infection in Children. JAMA Neurol. 2020;77(11):1440-5. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.2687.
5. Wang W, Xu Y, Gao R, Lu R, Han K, Wu G, et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA. 2020;323(18):1843-4. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.3786.
6. Sethuraman N, Jeremiah SS, Ryo A. Interpreting Diagnostic Tests for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2249-51. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.8259.
7. Luz Romero RM, Illán Ramos M, Berzosa Sánchez A, Joyanes Abancens B, Baos Muñoz E, Ramos Amador JT. Clinical characteristics of children hospitalized for COVID-19. Med Clin (Barc). 2022;158(7):336-9. doi: 10.1016/j.medcli.2021.11.016.
8. Simpson S, Kay FU, Abbara S, Bhalla S, Chung JH, Chung M, et al. Radiological Society of North America Expert Consensus Document on Reporting Chest CT Findings Related to COVID-19: Endorsed by the Society of Thoracic Radiology, the American College of Radiology, and RSNA. Radiol Cardiothorac Imaging. 2020;2(2):e200152. doi: 10.1148/ryct.2020200152.
9. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health. COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 Infection) Guideline: Pediatric Patient Management and Treatment. Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board. Ankara, Türkiye: Republic of Turkey Ministry of Health; 2020. Available from: https://covid19.saglik.gov.tr (accessed May 2026).
10. Shoji K, Akiyama T, Tsuzuki S, Matsunaga N, Asai Y, Suzuki S, et al. Clinical Characteristics of Hospitalized COVID-19 in Children: Report From the COVID-19 Registry in Japan. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2021;10(12):1097-100. doi: 10.1093/jpids/piab085.
11. Kim L, Whitaker M, O'Halloran A, Kambhampati A, Chai SJ, Reingold A, et al. Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Children Aged <18 Years Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed COVID-19 - COVID-NET, 14 States, March 1-July 25, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(32):1081-8. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6932e3.
12. Götzinger F, Santiago-García B, Noguera-Julián A, Lanaspa M, Lancella L, Calò Carducci FI, et al. COVID-19 in children and adolescents in Europe: a multinational, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(9):653-61. doi: 10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30177-2.
13. Avcu G, Yildiz Atikan B, Sig AK. Evaluation of children hospitalized due to COVID-19. J Pediatr Infect. 2023;17(2):112-8.
14. Henry BM, Lippi G, Plebani M. Laboratory abnormalities in children with novel coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2020;58(7):1135-8. doi: 10.1515/cclm-2020-0272.
15. Zhang L, Yan X, Fan Q, Liu H, Liu X, Liu Z, et al. D-dimer levels on admission to predict in-hospital mortality in patients with Covid-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(6):1324-9. doi: 10.1111/jth.14859.
16. Samprathi M, Jayashree M. Biomarkers in COVID-19: An Up-To-Date Review. Front Pediatr. 2021;8:607647. doi: 10.3389/fped.2020.607647.
17. Mitchell WB, Davila J, Keenan J, Jackson J, Tal A, Morrone KA, et al. Children and young adults hospitalized for severe COVID-19 exhibit
thrombotic coagulopathy. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2021;68(7):e28975. doi: 10.1002/pbc.28975.
Submitted date:
03/28/2026
Reviewed date:
06/21/2026
Accepted date:
07/05/2026
Publication date:
07/11/2026
